Extraction Characterization and Dye Adsorption Ability of Chitin From Crab Shell Watste - Free Essay Example

ABSTRACT Chitin is the second most abundant natural polysaccharide after cellulose and is present in the crustacean exoskeleton like crab, shrimp, insects and fungi. It is the main structural component of the exoskeletons of the animals like insects and crustaceans. Crab, shrimp, squilla and fish scale waste is ideal raw material for chitin production. The present work is aimed at extraction of chitin from crab shells. The methodology include acid hydrolysis, demineralization followed by deproteinization step. The chitin produced is analysed by FTIR based on the interpretation of the spectrogram of the two samples of chitin synthesized in the present work, it can be said that all functional groups expected are seen. The applications of the chitin are numerous but the study is focused on dye adsorption ability. INTRODUCTION The shell fish industry which is prominent in all costal countries generates about 60,000 to 80,000 tons of waste (Muzzarelli et al,1986). Even though the wastes are biodegradable, the dumping off large quantities makes degradation process slow resulting in accumulation of waste overtime which is a major environmental concern. A quick and effective solution to this is recycling of shell wastes and extraction of commercially viable substances like chitin from them. Chitin on its own has various applications. Chtin is a natural polysaccharide of major importance. This biopolymer is synthesized by enormous number of living organisms and it belongs to the most abundant natural polymers, after cellulose (Rinaudo et al,2006). Expelling of dyestuff into water resource system causes major threat to the environment. Adsorption is the cost effective and potential method to remove the dyes from the effluents. Effluents from various industries contain harmful coloring agents, which have to be removed to maintain the quality of the environment. Paper, fabric, leather and dyestuff production are some of the industries that release harmful effluents (Lin S, Lin Cet al,1993).The aim of the present study was to investigate the chitin adsorption capability on major industrial dye, Methylene Blue. MATERIALS AND METHOD Sample preparation- Crabs were collected from Dapodi fish market, Pune. Crabs inedible parts including head, body shells and tails were removed from the whole body for extraction of chitin. The crab shell were washed and air dried and used for extraction. Extraction of chitin- Crab shell waste Crab shell powder Demineralization Deproteination Extracted Chitin Figure 1.Flow chart of basic steps of Extraction of Chitin. Process I- 10 grams of sun dried crab shell waste was demineralized by adding 1.5 N HCl at room temperature for 1 hour. Acid was discarded and the shells were washed with distilled water until the pH is neutral. The shells were then de-proteinized with 0.5% NaOH at 100 °C for 30 minutes. Protein solution was removed and washed thoroughly with distilled water and the pH was checked. The de-proteinization process was again repeated, for that 3% NaOH was added to the sample at 100 °C for 30 minutes. After draining the residual proteins along with the effluents, the sample once again washed and the pH was observed till it was approximately near to neutral. Hence the chitin slurry was obtained. The excess water was removed. The alkali was drained off and washed thoroughly with distilled water until the pH is less than 7.5 and then dried at ambient temperature (30 ? ± 2? °C) Process II- 10 grams of crab shell waste were refluxed in 100ml of sodium hypochlorite (NaCLO)solution at 100oc for 10 minutes. The NaCLO solution was decanted and the powder was washed with distilled water. The above step was repeated once more. The sample was again refluxed in 50ml of 1M HCL at 75oC for 15 minutes. The solution was decanted and washed with distilled till it becomes neutral. The sample was then refluxed in 50ml of 1M NaoH(sodium hydroxide)solution at 100oC for 2 minutes to remove any protein residues. The solution was decanted and remaining sample was washed with distilled water till it becomes neutral. They were filtered off and placed in an oven at 60oC for a week. Characterization of Chitin Solubility Test Chitin dissolves completely in 1% Acetic Acid. For the estimation of chitin produced the sample was taken out of the storage and weighed . Then the sample was put inside a clean beaker and 10 to 20 ml of 1% acetic acid was added to it. The solution was kept in shaker for 30 to 40 minutes. Then the sample was taken out and weighed, carefully( Abhrajyoti Tarafdar et al,2013) FT-IR Spectroscopy: The samples were analysed by FT-IR spectroscopy in Istrumentation Centre Solapur university and the graph depicts wave number versus percent transmission. (Pandharipande S et al,2016) Dye adsorption by Chitin:Stock solution of the dye was prepared by taking 10mg of methylene blue powder and adding it to 1000ml of distilled water( Paula Szymczyk et al,2015).The pH of the dye solutions was adjusted using 1 N NaOH or 1 HCl.About 1g of extracted Chitin(adsorbent) was added to 100mL of dye solutions(adsorbate). A control was also maintained without addition of chitin. At specific time intervals, aliquots of 2-3 ml suspension were filtered and used to evaluate the adsorption of dye.The absorbance spectrum of the supernatant was subsequently measured using UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Concentration of dye adsorption was calculated by the absorbance value at 668nm. Percentage of dye adsorption was estimated by the following formula: % adsorption = 100 — [(CO â‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬â„¢C)/ C0] Where: C0 is the initial concentration of dye solution and C is the concentration of dye solution after Adsorption( S. Dhananasekaran et al,2015). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Extraction of chitin from crab requires harsh chemical treatments. The crab shells even though contains majority of chitin, also has proteins and minerals. Proteins are removed by deproteinization and carbon and other salts are removed by demineralization( Badawy et al,2011). Process I â€Å" Solubility test for sample 1 Initial weight of chitin was measured to be 0.40 gram. Final weight of chitin after reaction with 1% acetic acid was measured to be 0.22 grams and hence the total dissolved weight of chitin was calculated to be 0.18 grams. Proecss II Solubility test for sample 2 Initial weight of chitin produced was measured to be 0.40 grams .Final weight of shells after reaction with 1% acetic acid was measured to be 0.20 grams and hence the total dissolved weight of chitin was calculated to be 0.20 grams. Therefore, it was observed that chitin produced employing Process II was more readily soluble in 1% acetic acid solution then that produced through Process I. FTIR Analysis- The interpretation of FTIR analysis of the samples is done for the possible presence of functional groups and the details are given in Table 1(Dhananasekaran S et al,2016) Table 1 Sr.no Standard chitin wavelength in cm-1 Crab chitin wavelength in cm-1 Groups Sample-1 Sample-2 1. 3300-3250 3373 3278 N-H 2. 2891 2952 2920,2826 C-H 3. 1680-1660 1653 1647 C=O 4. 1560-1530 1560 1568 Amide 5. 1072 1017 1024,1094 C-0-C 6. 952 952 901 Amide III 7. 750-650 667,625 685,617 N-H The FT-IR spectra of chitin isolate from crab shell are given in Figure 2 and 3 Theoreitically,? ±-chitin is characterized by three characteristic amide bands appearing at 1650,1620, and 1550 cm-1.In this study we observed FTIR bands at 1653 cm-1 and 1560 cm-1 for chitin sample 1 in figure 2.Here peak at 1653 cm-1 corresponds to symmetrical deformation to vibration of amide I band stretching C=O and 1560 cm-1 Coressponds to N-H deformation of amide II(Muhammed, R., et al,2010) FIG 2: FT-IR spectra of chitin (Sample 1) FIG 3: FT-IR spectra of chitin(Sample2) In sample 2,Figure 3 the peaks are observed at 1647 cm-1 and 1568 cm-1 which corresponds to symmetrical deformation to vibration of amide I band stretching C=O and N-H deformation of amide II respectively. From interpretation of FT IR it can be said that all functional groups which are during synthesis have been identified in the form of peaks that include amide,carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.This indicates the successive formation of chitin biopolymer(Muhammed, R., et al) Dye adsorption by Extracted Chitin Graph 1:Effect of pH on removal of dye Graph 2:Effect of contact time on removal of dye Graph 1 shows the relationship between pH values and percentage removal of dye .The readings were taken having varying pH between 4-9 and between intervals of 30 minutes. A result shows that the effectiveness of dye adsorption onto chitin was decreasing along with the increasing pH value. Here, the effect of dye adsorption is found maximum at pH7 i.e the neutral. The dye removal percentage with contact time between dye and extracted chitin is shown in Graph 2. The range of observed contact time was 30 -180 minutes with the increment of 30 minutes. It is observed that with increase in incubation time the effectiveness of dye adsorption by chitin increases. The % removal was found to be maximum at 180 minutes at pH 7 such as after 3 hours compared to initial readings. The % removal was found to be 39% after 180 minutes. CONCLUSION Chitin is one of the most abundant biopolymers in nature and is a major component in the supporting tissues of organisms such as crustaceans, fungi, and insects. It has wide application in various fields. This study shows the production of chitin from crab shell. The FTIR and chemical characterization studies confirm the production of chitin. In this study removal of dyes by adsorption using crab shell(chitin) was investigated. This study monitored the ability of chitin for removing dyes from aqueous solutions. Interaction between the chitin and dye were found to be strongly dependent on pH of the solution. The maximum percentage of dyes reduction was obtained at an optimum contact time 180 minutes and optimum pH of 7.Crab shell chitin has been found to be comparatively better adsorbent because it can remove almost 39 % of dyes within 3 hours. Finally, the result of adsorption study, it is concluded that chitin can be used as a coagulant of dyes because of its higher adsorptive capac ity, cost effectiveness, environment friendly behavior and availability in nature.

B-29 The Airplane that Changed the World - 1366 Words

â€Å"Never before had so much brain-power been focused on a single problem.†(Laurence qtd. in â€Å"Eyewitness†). Many inventions can be said to have changed the world, and the way it worked. Only a core few of these many inventions can be said to change air warfare, and few of those are as game-changing as the B-29 Superfortress by Boeing. The B-29 was the plane that dropped the atomic bombs in World War Two (â€Å"bomber†). The plane by Boeing was used most in World War Two as a strategic long-range bomber. This invention revolutionized the concept of war, and war is a factor in all life on planet earth. The B-29 bomber changed warfare by sparking the innovation of aircraft technology, saving lives, and allowing more power to be carried by the means†¦show more content†¦These troops were still needed in some aspects of war, but a vast number of them were not needed as much in warfare from that point onward. The vastly improved technology on the B-29 bomber allowed it to do something no other plane could do before. This was easily and safely invading enemy airspace (â€Å"bomber†). It easily invaded enemy airspace by flying higher than other planes could easily dispatch and flying faster than it took the enemies to realize there had even been a bomber until the bomb struck and the bomber was safe and sound away from the blast. That way many less dogfights had to take place and entire armies did not have to be sent to attack a target that could be brought down much more efficiently (Powell 417). The planes abilities were used to target weak points of the other side and terrorise the enemies of the Allied powers. There was much less deaths of attackers and much more success when they used airplanes. Some countries during World War Two realized this advantage of bombers and used it to great success. 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The Campus Of The University Of California - 1764 Words

Overview: On the campus of the University of California, Tatiana Tarasoff was killed by Prosenjit Poddar just two months after being detained by campus police for making such threats in a counseling session. According to Public Health Law, Poddar expressed that he was going to carry out the action of murder during two different counseling sessions, which his psychologist, Dr. Moore, had no choice but to have him detained. He was released after promising to stay away from Tarasoff, however, he followed through on killing Tatiana Tarasoff. During this time frame, according to the â€Å"Facts† from a casebriefs.com (page 2), the psychologist sought out other professionals for insight. The reason for consensualizing was to get others’ insight as to whether is was the psychologists place to warn Tatiana Tarasoff or her parents of this threat, and break confidentiality with her client. 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What impact did the Vikings have on North Britain free essay sample

Shortly before the ninth century, North-west Europe was exposed to raids and attacks from the Scandinavians. They had discovered the wealth that could be obtained from the richer communities of Britain and Frankia, both in currency and natural resources (the latter being found especially in Ireland). As time went on, during the course of the ninth century, the leaders of the attacks on these countries grew more ambitious and soon there were different motives for raiding these places. Many leaders had become content to stay and settle permanently in these abundantly richer countries. This process of Viking settlement led to the integration of two cultures, between the peoples of the settled countries and the Vikings, this integration enveloped languages and religion mainly. This essay will seek to distinguish what impact the Scandinavian settlement had on the region of North Britain, in particular Scotland and the islands surrounding the coast of Scotland. Firstly to be able to fully assess what impact was had, one firstly must look at the nature of society and settlement before the Scandinavian invasion. By the end of the Roman occupation in Britain, the area that we now call Scotland consisted of many different Kingdoms. There were four distinct groups within the borders that are now Scotland. In the east were the Picts with Kingdom between Forth and Shetland. While in the West the people of Dal Riata, the Goidelic speakers, with their royal fortress in Argyll. Then there were the Brythonic peoples in the South making the Kingdom of Strathclyde with their centre being Dunbarton Rock and finally the English or Angles who settled in the South East. At the beginning of the Viking raids into North Britain the region had been divided into four ethnic groups of Britons, English, Gaels and Picts. Or rather three distinct political regions, Northumbria, Pictland and Strathclyde, into which further there were a multitude of various kingships and lordships, creating a somewhat complex web of power during this time. Eventually it would come down between the Gaels and Picts, were power was regularly disputed between the two. However by the 8th Century the distinctiveness of the two peoples had clearly lessened, bloodlines had been diluted by marriage in what one assumes were attempts at bridging peace or gaining pre-eminence over the other. Unfortunately the records of much of early Scottish History are not written, with many lost or destroyed, which  can make a survey of pre-Viking Scotland somewhat difficult. There is little to no written evidence between the Seventh Century text of Adamnan’s Life of Columba and Tactitus’ account of Agricola, leaving around five centuries of history in the dark. Despite this we are still able to make fair assumptions due to details and evidence in various different texts including the Orkneyinga Saga and Irish and English annals and chronicles. However it is still important to treat these texts with care considering the Norse Saga was written by an unknown Icelandic scribe while the annals and chronicles are susceptible to certain bias. One of the most often popular citations from the Anglo Saxon Chronicle; an entry under 793, â€Å"This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery, dragons flying across the firmament. These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine: and not long after, on the sixth day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing inroads of heathen men made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island, by rapine and slaughter. † The extract describing the Viking raid on Lindisfarne; this is often considered the opening deluge into Viking attacks in Britain. In 795 the Vikings sacked Iona, in 802 they burned it and in 806 they killed sixty eight of the community living on the island. This was the first attack in close proximity to Scotland. They’re had been previous attacks on other areas such as Lindisfarne and Rechru which is now Rathlin Island off the north coast of Antrim, as it is recorded in the Annals of Ulster, â€Å"The burning of Rechru by the heathens, and Sci was overwhelmed and laid waste. † Again the Annals of Ulster mention the abruptness of â€Å"the devastation of all the islands of Britain by pagans†. Soon after, Orkney, Shetland and the majority of the western Isles had fallen to the new Scandinavian settlers. In 839, the Vikings had enjoyed a major victory in which the King of Fortriu, Eogan mac Oengusa and the King of Dal Riata, Aed mac Boanta were both killed in battle. In 867 the Vikings had seized control of Northubria forming the Kingdom of York . Which is also mentioned in the Annals of Ulster; â€Å"The dark foreigners won a battle over the northern Saxons at York. † Approximately three years after, Dunbarton was also taken over as well, leaving a newly combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom which had been brought together by Cinead mac Alpin ( or more commonly known as Kenneth Alpin), leaving the Kingdom almost entirely encircled by the new Scandinavian settlers The usual perception of Vikings plays reference to their role mainly as raiders, being disruptive and destructive. However conquerors and colonists made a more positive contribution by encouraging commerce, the growth of towns and re-shaping political structures. We can see this by the fact that much of North England had been reshaped due to the formation of Danelaw. During the 890’s the Danes had even introduced a new currency within Danelaw. The impact of the Viking commerce that took place in towns and cities within Danelaw should not go un-noticed; cities such as York remained for centuries after a place of importance in terms of trade and wealth. The fact that they introduced new coinages shows the impact that they had on the politics of the areas they settled and similarly the law codes that they issued in the names of King Edgar and King Knut, would suggest that they did have a greater impact than what the lack of evidence would suggest. Further north in Britain, areas may have experienced different levels of influence such as the Orkneys or the Hebrides, unlike most other areas of Scotland, land was not fertile and offered little in means of agriculture, however these Eastern Isles of Scotland had fertile lands, landscapes conducive to farming and more than not, the new Scandinavian settlers most likely helped to exploit this. The Norse presence heavily influenced Scotland’s language. Undoubtedly the gaelic language more than like must have undergone minor changes throughout the centuries preceding the arrival of the Norse settlers. The Norse domination of the Hebrides lasted for almost 500 years, until the conclusion of the Treaty of Perth in 1266, and the Scandinavian language probably did not drop out of use altogether in the area until nearly the sixteenth century. While in Orkney and the Shetlands remained under the control of the Scandinavians until they were pledged in 1468-69 by King Christian I of Denmark to the Scottish crown, and the Scandinavian language remained until as late as the eighteenth century. However the native languages of the Northern Isles underwent a complete Norse transformation. Despite this, the gaelic language in the end did prevail, but the Norse dominance can still be seen today, particularly in places names, such as on the Isle of Lewis where four fifths of the place names are Norse. It is slightly harder to determine the extent to which the Vikings influenced religion in North Britain, or where they themselves were influenced by religion. The Viking impact is assumed to be damaging, but in order to fully understand this we would need to have a clear idea on what the pre-existing structures, in this case, the Church were already like. Indeed many Viking studies have made assumptions about the social nature and political practices in Viking Scotland (which may need to be revised). However it may be a fair assumption to make, that like in many other areas throughout Britain, the Vikings had quickly accepted Christianity and therefore a parallel may be able to be drawn in such places like Scotland also. The Viking settlement in the North may have accidently played an early role in the creation of modern day Scotland or Alba. Where previsously before the land had been divided between Picland, Strathclyde and Dal Riata. The new settlers almost acted as a catalyst in uniting these separate Kingdoms together against a common enemy – the Norse. The extent of the Viking impact in North Britain is still today a largely unanswered one, the lack of written evidence from the area adds to making the task harder. However based on other evidence from sources of the same time such as the Annals of Ulster or the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles one can gain a fair idea of the impact which was had. The fact that the islands of Orkney and the Hebrides remained under Viking control for a such a long period of time is a clear marker of the impact which was had. To add to this is he linguistic impression on place names in North Britain still stands today as evidence of what was once a Scandinavian dominated area and culture as well.

The Construction of Brazilian Identity in Japan

The book ‘No One Home’ by Linger (2001) is a study that mainly focuses on the fieldwork data collected through interviewing a large number of people on the identity of Nikkei living and working in Japan.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Construction of Brazilian Identity in Japan specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Nikkei are as a result of the Japanese government allowing the Japanese immigrants a bonafide existence in japan. In the study, we are introduced to a situation where the Brazilian factory workers were subjected to tough and poor working conditions characterized by hard detrimental physical activities due to their unascertained identity. This humiliation is further extended to various social institutions. For example, in Japanese schools, the Nikkei’s children are subjected to cultural, educational, and other forms of segregation that render their lives intolerable and demean th eir value as human beings. The leaders in various groups would subject the Nikkei to varying kinds of torture whenever they identified them. In this pretext, the Nikkei came back to their Japanese homes only to be faced with total rejection by the very people they once termed as their own. According to Linger (2001), it was a bit difficult for the Japanese government to recognise the original identity of the Nikkei. Their presence and uniqueness raised questions in the social and corporate sectors. This then led to a perception that the Nikkei were not of Japanese origin and are seen as imposters. However they are neither eradicated nor deported but they are rather asked to offer subsidy to those willing to return to South America (Linger, 2001).Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This led to conduction of a survey with an intention of establishing facts underlying the situation togethe r with the public’s opinion on the government’s initiative. The survey was conducted on various groups of people with the Nikkei’s children included. Some of the common questioned posed to the respondent were if they aware of the existence of the Nikkei in Japan. Moreover, the respondents were supposed to elaborate how they acquired the knowledge on the existence of the Nikkei. An analysis of the data collected proved that 53 percent of the respondents knew very little of the Nikkei’s existence. The rest 47 percent of those interviewed claimed they were not aware of their existence. This failure may be attributed to the fact that most of the Nikkei lived in the unindustrialized parts of the country. It was also established that the highest registration of persons was achieved in 2007 with nearly four hundred South Americans registering their nationality in Japan (Linger, 2001). It was publicly assumed all over Japan that the Nikkei were the cause of the r ising criminal tendencies. They linked this to the results of the survey which revealed a very small percentage of Japanese that had any interactions with the Nikkei. It is noted that the National Police Agency was the major institution spearheading this misconception that the criminal activities were conducted by numerous foreigners in Japan.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Construction of Brazilian Identity in Japan specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The data collected from the survey further indicated that a high percentage of the respondents claimed that the Nikkei had to learn the Japanese culture, language, and customs before they came to Japan. They further advocated for the Nikkei to work and earn for their daily needs and reduce their dependency levels (Linger, 2001). In an effort to establish the identity of Brazil in Japan, the government came up with certain measures that would enhance assimilation . This included fostering the children to learn the Japanese language and use of interpreters for the Nikkei at the work place. In a survey conducted in relation to this, a high percentage of the respondents were in favour of the government’s intention. However, their response was highly questioned by the Nikkei who claimed skepticism in their words and actions. The Nikkei claimed presence of evident signs of probation-like treatment. In one incident one of the Nikkei claimed to have witnessed unwelcoming habits which included the posting of threatening messages in the work place where the gaijin movement had been forewarned of being under constant watch since they are associated with criminal activities (Linger, 2001). This is a clear indication that even though there were people who had no problem with the government’s project, a vast majority of the people were not pleased with the move. This is evidenced by the kind of environment they are subjected to both at work and the society together with the messages addressed to them.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The results of the survey conducted in establishing the perception of the citizens about the Nikkei was of great significance to the government, as it was used in determining the steps to take in the Brazil identification project. The results helped the government unravel the cause of the slowed integration of the Nikkei with the rest of the Japanese society. This is because people often offer lip service but in the end contradict their words with their actions. The government’s efforts for enhancing the initiative are seen in conducting a non-biased survey which they further posted on public websites in order to obtain public opinion. Reference Linger, D. (2001). No one home: Brazilian selves remade in Japan. Web. This essay on The Construction of Brazilian Identity in Japan was written and submitted by user James Kidd to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Reaction to Howard Zinn’s Writing about Vietnam

Reaction to Howard Zinn’s Writing about Vietnam Zinn gives a complete overview of what happened. He does not go into immense detail on every subject, because if he did that he still would be writing about Vietnam. I was very interested while reading. What I found different was the way Zinn plays a neutral position on the war, leaning a little towards a pacifist. While reading this some of my thoughts of the entire Vietnam War changed. I wish I could have been a bird in the sky while the War was going on. It would have been great to be able to watch all the events, battles, riots, and protests take place. The way that the government lied and continued to lie to the people of America was astonishing to me. It puts a question in the back of my mind of what we do truly know. The things that they do not tell us could change peoples thought and ideas forever, but we will never know. I would like to read the â€Å"Pentagon Papers† sometime and see the truths behind our government’s actions. I think that one of the biggest problems our country had during the Vietnam War was the extreme lack of public support. The U.S. was almost fighting two wars with in it self. There was the government vs. Vietnam and the Government vs. the People, and to think the U.S. was losing lives on both ends of the spectrum. Remember this was all because of an analogy to a game of dominos. What I found amazing was the amount of people evading and revolting. I think reading a book about the people that were for the war would make an excellent counter part to Zinn. Although he does say that the people with college degrees were more for the war than people with high school and no education, but it does not take a genius to figure out why that was. Who was going to war? Yep the lower class people. The presidents claimed that all they would not be affected by all the antiwar cries from the public. Nixon later said he was affected. If I was... Free Essays on Reaction to Howard Zinn’s Writing about Vietnam Free Essays on Reaction to Howard Zinn’s Writing about Vietnam Reaction to Howard Zinn’s Writing about Vietnam Zinn gives a complete overview of what happened. He does not go into immense detail on every subject, because if he did that he still would be writing about Vietnam. I was very interested while reading. What I found different was the way Zinn plays a neutral position on the war, leaning a little towards a pacifist. While reading this some of my thoughts of the entire Vietnam War changed. I wish I could have been a bird in the sky while the War was going on. It would have been great to be able to watch all the events, battles, riots, and protests take place. The way that the government lied and continued to lie to the people of America was astonishing to me. It puts a question in the back of my mind of what we do truly know. The things that they do not tell us could change peoples thought and ideas forever, but we will never know. I would like to read the â€Å"Pentagon Papers† sometime and see the truths behind our government’s actions. I think that one of the biggest problems our country had during the Vietnam War was the extreme lack of public support. The U.S. was almost fighting two wars with in it self. There was the government vs. Vietnam and the Government vs. the People, and to think the U.S. was losing lives on both ends of the spectrum. Remember this was all because of an analogy to a game of dominos. What I found amazing was the amount of people evading and revolting. I think reading a book about the people that were for the war would make an excellent counter part to Zinn. Although he does say that the people with college degrees were more for the war than people with high school and no education, but it does not take a genius to figure out why that was. Who was going to war? Yep the lower class people. The presidents claimed that all they would not be affected by all the antiwar cries from the public. Nixon later said he was affected. If I was...

Discuss how mechanical engineering has helped the human race to Assignment

Discuss how mechanical engineering has helped the human race to develop - Assignment Example Among the aspects of human lives, that mechanical engineering has influenced includes transportation. Throughout the history of humans, the transportation of products to the commercial centers was one of the biggest challenges to the development and faster civilization of humans. However, with the discovery of mechanical engineering, humans have fast tracked developments in communication and transportation technologies thus developing stronger economies of the contemporary society. Introduction Mechanical engineering began in the 18th century in central Europe during the industrial revolution. The wave of industrial revolution in Europe influenced numerous discoveries with the view of increasing the use of machines to replace the extensive human labor that had preceded the agrarian revolution. Humans thus concerted their effort in determining the best ways of harnessing heat energy and using it to run machines. Among the several areas, that humans concentrated on was transportation. Humans had tried developing faster and easier ways of transportation to help facilitate the movements of both people and products. After the invention of the wheel much earlier, humans concentrated on inventing ways of propelling the wheel and using it to facilitate transportation. Through mechanical engineering, humans discovered the use of fossil and among other fuels to produce heat capable of propelling engines. The invention of automobiles, ships and airplanes in the modern societies origi nated from the concerted efforts of such early mundane mechanical engineers as Isaac Newton and Archimedes to explain some of the developments in the field. Integration and interaction were and still are essential psychological concepts that have influenced every aspect of humanity including politics ad economy. Humans needed effective and efficient ways of transporting their products to the market. This was essential for survival since after the agrarian revolution, the climatic disparity resulted in different regions producing specific products. Humans therefore needed effective platforms to trade their products thus develop stronger and more cohesive societies. Additionally, humans had invented and started using some of the basic tools such as hoes and ploughs during the agrarian revolution. With such basic knowledge on the use of tools, humans therefore sought to incorporate the use of machines to pull carts and wagons. With the invention of mechanical engineering, humans could therefore begin developing machines capable of increasing the efficiency of the previously existing tools. The development of effective means of transportation led to the faster industrialization of the European economies. The basic knowledge of propelling motors with fuel is fundamental in the design of motor vehicle among other machines that operate on motion and movable gears. Mechanical engineering aided the discovery of effective means of turning fossil fuel into heat energy thus operating the machines of the basic principles of mechanical engineering (James, 1987). The principles include mechanics, kinematics and thermodynamics among many others. The principles incorporate the use of heat to propel gears and levers to facilitate the movement of specific parts of the machines thus resulting in the movement of the entire machines as in the case of cars, ships and airpl